Complicity and conviction

A foundational critique of modern and postmodern architecture, arguing that both movements have drifted away from expressing genuine human values. William Hubbard contends that architects have ceded too much agency to external forces-ideologies, systems, or stylistic trends-rather than embracing architecture as a deliberate, value-laden human act. examining what Hubbard calls a "failure of nerve" in contemporary architecture: the widespread belief that building forms arise from forces outside human intention. He argues that this mindset has rendered architecture less capable of expressing meaning, purpose, and shared cultural values. To counter this, Hubbard proposes a renewed understanding of convention-not  as rigid habit, but as a flexible, human-centered framework that allows architects to create forms that feel "right" because they embody collective judgements about fairness, clarity, and justice. Drawing from three domains-games, typography, and law-Hubbard shows how conventions in each field creates structures that people willingly accept and believe in, even though they could have been otherwise. He then translates these insights into architectural strategies that restore intentionality, moral grounding, and expressive power to design. The result is a rigorous, philosophically informed call for architects to reclaim authorship and responsibility in shaping the built environment.